THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING METHODOLOGY: FROM SOCRATIC DIALOGUES TO MODERN EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGIES

Abstract

Introduction. The article addresses the historical development and conceptual foundations of problembased learning (PBL) as one of the key pedagogical approaches that stimulate intellectual activity, independent inquiry and critical thinking. It traces how the idea of engaging students through problem situations gradually evolved from ancient philosophical dialogues to a consistent educational methodology. Purpose. The purpose of the study is to analyze the historical aspects of the emergence and evolution of problembased learning, to generalize its core theoretical principles and to determine the significance of this approach for contemporary educational theory and practice. Methods. The research is based on a historical-pedagogical analysis of philosophical and didactic sources from antiquity to the twentieth century. Comparative and structural-functional methods were applied to reveal continuity in the conceptualization of PBL and to identify key stages of its theoretical and methodological formation. Results. The analysis shows that the origins of PBL can be traced back to the Socratic method of questioning and to the dialogic practices of the sophists, which emphasized active cognitive engagement. In the early modern period, F. Bacon’s empiricism and J. A. Comenius’s «Great Didactic» laid the groundwork for understanding learning as an active process. Enlightenment and nineteenth-century educators J.-J. Rousseau, J. H. Pestalozzi, F. A. W. Diesterweg and H. Armstrong highlighted the learner’s role as an active subject and introduced heuristic teaching strategies. In the twentieth century, J. Dewey conceptualized reflective thinking as a process of problem solving and described its five stages, thereby establishing a methodological basis for modern PBL. J. Bruner advanced the concept of discovery learning, proposed the spiral curriculum and emphasized intrinsic motivation as a key driver of intellectual effort. Further contributions came from G. Pólya, O. Selz and K. Duncker, who examined productive and creative thinking, elaborated the structure of problems and formulated heuristic strategies that foster students’ intellectual initiative. The culmination of these developments was the creation of a coherent theory of problem-based learning by the Polish educator W. Okoń. He defined the concept of a “learning problem,” differentiated levels of problem tasks, and developed a structured model of teacher–student interaction aimed at organizing problem situations and verifying hypotheses. Originality. This article offers an integrated synthesis of the major stages in the evolution of PBL ‒ from early philosophical and pedagogical interpretations to modern cognitively oriented models ‒ and identifies the methodological principles that ensured its incorporation into contemporary pedagogy. Such a comprehensive historical perspective allows for a deeper understanding of the conceptual continuity and the enduring relevance of PBL as a pedagogical strategy. Conclusion. The study demonstrates that problem-based learning has evolved from a set of scattered philosophical ideas into a robust and methodologically grounded educational technology. Today it functions as a powerful tool for developing critical thinking, creative potential and the ability to solve complex tasks under dynamic educational conditions.